JBJS | Bone-Marrow Transplantation in Sickle-Cell Disease. Effect on Osteonecrosis: A Case Report with a Four-Year Follow-up*

The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, Volume 79, Issue 11

Case Reports | November 01, 1997

Bone-Marrow Transplantation in Sickle-Cell Disease. Effect on Osteonecrosis: A Case Report with a Four-Year Follow-up*

P. HERNIGOU, M.D.†; F. BERNAUDIN, M.D.†; P. REINERT, M.D.†; M. KUENTZ, M.D.†; J. P. VERNANT, M.D.†, CRETEIL, FRANCE

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Investigation performed at Hôpital Henri Mondor, Creteil

The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1997; 79:1726-30

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Introduction

Introduction | Case Report | Discussion | References

Sickle-cell disease involves both hematological and osseous abnormalities because it affects the two major functions of bone tissue: hematopoiesis and osteogenesis. Symptoms include dactylitis, painful vaso-occlusive crises, splenic reticuloendothelial dysfunction (also called functional asplenia), and multiple-organ damage and failure in children and adults. It is probably the most common cause of avascular necrosis worldwide⁵; in series of adult patients, the reported prevalence of involvement of the femoral head was 30 per cent (ninety-five of 320 hips)¹³ and that of the humeral head was 48 per cent (106 of 220 shoulders)¹¹.

Osteopetrosis is another disease that is associated with both hematological and osseous abnormalities. Walker, in the mid-1970s, performed a series of experiments on osteopetrotic mice and found that it was possible to correct both types of abnormalities simultaneously with use of a bone-marrow allograft^26-29.

The use of bone-marrow transplantation for the treatment of sickle-cell disease was reported in 1984 by Johnson et al., who described the case of an eight-year-old girl who had acute myeloblastic leukemia and sickle-cell anemia¹⁵. The hematopoietic system of the patient was converted to one showing sickle-cell trait, which was identical to that of the donor. Bone-marrow transplantation represents an approach for the treatment of severe sickle-cell disease and is the only curative therapy for this hemoglobinopathy to our knowledge. This new therapeutic approach should be considered for only a small proportion of patients because of its associated risks and because of uncertainty regarding the long-term outcome. From 1984 to 1993, at least forty-seven patients had a bone-marrow transplantation for the treatment of sickle-cell disease^14,24. Correction of anemia and functional asplenia was observed^6,7. It remains to be determined if such treatment reverses other abnormalities such as osteonecrosis, which frequently is associated with sickle-cell disease.

We report the case of a patient who had osteonecrosis of the humeral head secondary to sickle-cell disease. Treatment with a bone-marrow allograft led to a favorable outcome and a tendency toward normalization of the bone marrow after a follow-up of four years. This patient was previously described in a preliminary report¹⁰ that was published in 1994. The four-year follow-up of this patient confirms the initial findings of the preliminary report. However, there is still uncertainty regarding the long-term outcome of this procedure.

*No benefits in any form have been received or will be received from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of this article. No funds were received in support of this study.

†Hôpital Henri Mondor, 51, avenue du Mal de Lattre Tassigny, 94010 Creteil CEDEX, France.

*No benefits in any form have been received or will be received from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of this article. No funds were received in support of this study.

†Hôpital Henri Mondor, 51, avenue du Mal de Lattre Tassigny, 94010 Creteil CEDEX, France.

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Fig. 1 Radiograph made before the bone-marrow transplantation, showing osteonecrosis and evident collapse of the humeral head (arrow). (Reprinted, with permission, from: Hernigou, P., and Bernaudin, F.: Bone marrow transplantation [BMT] and correction of bone abnormalities associated with sickle cell disease [SCD]. Rev. chir. orthop., 80: 138—143, 1994.)

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Fig. 2 T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scan of the shoulder, showing low signal intensity in the entire epiphysis. In children and adolescents who have sickle-cell disease²², the volume of red hematopoietic marrow is expanded secondary to hemolytic anemia. Thus, fatty replacement of the marrow in the epiphysis does not occur. This explains why children and adults who have sickle-cell disease have abnormal bone marrow with exuberant hematopoiesis. Once the disease becomes severe, the medullary cavity and the epiphyses continue to have low signal intensity²³ on T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scans—that is, they have a gray or black appearance rather than the usual white appearance that is due to high fat content. (Reprinted, with permission, from: Hernigou, P., and Bernaudin, F: Bone marrow transplantation [BMT] and correction of bone abnormalities associated with sickle cell disease [SCD]. Rev. chir.orthop., 80: 138—143, 1994.)

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Fig. 3 Radiograph of the shoulder, made three months after the transplantation, showing the reconstruction of the proximal humeral epiphysis. (Reprinted, with permission, from: Hernigou, P., and Bernaudin, F.: Bone marrow transplantation [BMT] and correction of bone abnormalities associated with sickle cell disease [SCD]. Rev. chir. orthop., 80: 138—143, 1994.)

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Fig. 4 T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging scan of the shoulder, made three months after the transplantation, showing high signal intensity in the proximal humeral epiphysis (arrow).

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Fig. 5 Coronal magnetic resonance imaging scan of the shoulder, made four years after the transplantation, showing regions of high signal intensity (arrows) that indicate the high fat content of the proximal humeral epiphysis.

Case Report

Introduction | Case Report | Discussion | References

A thirteen-year-old boy had severely symptomatic sickle-cell disease that was associated with severe hemolytic anemia as well as frequent (twice monthly) severe vaso-occlusive events that necessitated the use of morphine. The diagnosis of homozygous (SS) sickle-cell disease had been made on the basis of hemoglobin electrophoresis when the patient was one year old. Osteonecrosis of the left humeral head had been diagnosed when the patient was twelve years old (Fig. 1). At the time of presentation, the patient had impaired function and constant moderate pain that limited his participation in recreational and sports activities but did not interfere with sleep. The patient was able to raise the hand to the levels of the waist, the xiphoid process, and the neck but not to the top of the head. He had only 10 degrees of external rotation, 130 degrees of forward elevation, and 120 degrees of lateral abduction. The strength of forward elevation was limited to grade 4 (of 5) on manual muscle-testing. He had no other abnormalities of the bones or the joints. Magnetic resonance imaging of the left shoulder showed low signal intensity in the epiphysis (Fig. 2) instead of the high signal intensity that normally is observed as a result of the high fat content of the epiphyses of individuals of the same age who do not have sickle-cell disease. Because of the severity and frequency of the vaso-occlusive crises despite the use of transfusion therapy, and in view of the availability of an HLA-identical sibling, bone-marrow transplantation was proposed to the patient and his family.

The transplantation was performed in February 1992 after administration of a conditioning regimen of busulfan (sixteen milligrams per kilogram of body weight), cyclophosphamide (200 milligrams per kilogram of body weight), and total lymphoid irradiation in order to suppress the immune response and to eliminate hematopoietic precursors. The bone-marrow donor was an HLA-identical sibling for whom a mixed-leukocyte culture was non-reactive; the donor was heterozygous for sickle-cell anemia. The marrow was infused intravenously for one-half hour, beginning forty-eight hours after the last infusion of cyclophosphamide. The dose of nucleated marrow cells that was infused was 2 x 10⁸ per kilogram of body weight. After the transplantation, prophylaxis against graft-versus-host disease consisted of methotrexate (fifteen milligrams per square meter on the first day and ten milligrams per square meter on the third and sixth days). Administration of cyclosporin A had been initiated on the day before the transplantation and was continued for six months; the dose was adjusted to maintain an effective cyclosporinemia between 150 and 250 nanograms per milliliter during this period. The patient was isolated in a laminar airflow room for five weeks. He was maintained on a low-bacterial diet and was managed with oral administration of non-absorbable antibiotics, including nifuroxazide (800 milligrams per day), gentamicin (eighty milligrams per day), neomycin (one gram per day), and colistin sulfate (150 milligrams per day). Antiviral prophylaxis (acyclovir; five milligrams per kilogram of body weight every eight hours) and standard immunoglobulins were administered intravenously as described previously². Blood products that were given before and after the transplantation of bone marrow were irradiated. In order to avoid vaso-occlusive crises during the first six weeks after the operation, care was taken to maintain the hemoglobin-S level at less than 30 per cent of the total hemoglobin with use of packed red blood cells from patients who had normal levels of hemoglobin.

Engraftment and chimerism were assessed with use of cytogenetic and enzymatic analysis and by determination of the hemoglobin pattern and the red blood cell phenotype. Engraftment was successful; graft-versus-host disease did not occur; and full, stable, total donor chimerism was observed, with the patient having the same hemoglobin-S level as the heterozygous donor.

Three months after the transplantation, radiographs showed rapid reconstruction of the left proximal humeral epiphysis (Fig. 3) and T1-weighted magnetic resonance images demonstrated a tendency toward normalization of the marrow signal in that region (Fig. 4). The reappearance of a high-intensity signal on T1-weighted images reflected the high fat content of the proximal humeral epiphysis. The pain in the shoulder had decreased and forward elevation had increased to 150 degrees, but there had been no improvement in external rotation, lateral abduction, or strength.

Four years later, the patient was well and was no longer receiving treatment. A magnetic resonance imaging scan confirmed the tendency toward normalization of the marrow signal in the proximal part of the humerus (Fig. 5). The patient was without pain most of the time and had only slight pain during recreational and sports activities. External rotation remained limited to 10 degrees, but forward elevation had increased to 170 degrees and lateral abduction had increased to 160 degrees. The strength of forward elevation was grade 5.

Discussion

Introduction | Case Report | Discussion | References

To the best of our knowledge, Johnson et al.¹⁵ were the first to show that hemolytic anemia secondary to sickle-cell disease could be corrected by transplantation of bone marrow. Transplantation of bone marrow leads to a regression of the hematological manifestations of sickle-cell disease, including hemolytic anemia²⁵. This explains the tendency toward normalization of the marrow signal as seen on magnetic resonance imaging scans made after the transplantation. The decrease in low-intensity signal and the appearance of high-intensity signal corresponded to the fatty replacement of the normal hematopoietic tissue in the epiphysis, a phenomenon that begins several years earlier in normal children.

Since the report by Johnson et al.¹⁵, bone-marrow transplantation has proved to be successful for the treatment of sickle-cell disease because of the lifelong conversion of the bone marrow, which results in the correction of anemia and functional asplenia. Engraftment was successful in forty-one of the forty-seven patients who had a bone-marrow transplantation before 1993^14,24, and the effectiveness of this treatment has continued to be evaluated^1,8,17,30. The possibility that bone-marrow transplantation may have an effect on osteonecrosis was reported by two of us (P. H. and F. B.) in a preliminary study of two patients¹⁰. One of the patients lived in Africa and was lost to follow-up after six months; the second patient is the basis of the present report.

A surprising finding in the present study was the very rapid reconstruction of the humeral head, which was observed three months after the bone-marrow transplantation. This finding was especially notable in view of the fact that no radiographic improvement had been observed during the entire year preceding the transplantation. It is possible that the effect of the bone-marrow transplantation may explain the rapidity of the reconstruction of the epiphysis. The underlying mechanisms are unclear, but several hypotheses have been proposed. A mechanistic concept recently has been suggested for the reversible functional asplenia in children^7,21. This concept is based on the fact that blood that has a high viscosity because of the presence of sickled cells bypasses the reticuloendothelial tissue of the spleen through intrasplenic shunts³¹. This functional asplenia may reverse after a transfusion of packed red blood cells in young patients who have a palpable spleen or after a bone-marrow transplantation. As there is a structural and functional similarity between the circulation in the spleen⁹ and that in the bone marrow³¹, it is reasonable to suggest that the same mechanistic concept that is applied to the spleen can be applied to the bone marrow. Thus, it is possible that the effect of the bone-marrow transplantation resulted in the rapid reconstruction of the epiphysis. The normal hematopoietic marrow³¹ of the epiphysis has a rich sinusoidal system that is fed by several epiphyseal vessels. However, blood flow in the sinusoidal system is sluggish and the biochemical environment facilitates the sickling process. As blood that contains sickled cells has a high viscosity, this produces a relative obstruction to blood flow at the capillary level. Moreover, the arteriovenous anastomoses that are believed to be present in bone³¹ may divert the blood flow with a resultant bypassing of the blood flow, producing an apparent functional hypovascularization. However, when sickled red blood cells are replaced with normal red blood cells after the transplantation of bone marrow, the epiphyseal circulation may be restored. The restoration of circulation may allow rapid reconstruction of the bone marrow.

Another possible explanation is that, after transplantation of bone marrow, the increased blood flow that is due to the decrease in blood viscosity may lead to an increase in capillary filtration. This may increase the exposure of osteoblasts and their precursor cells to growth factor, which could lead to the formation of bone^3,16 in patients who are known to have a high number of osteoprogenitor cells in the marrow.

In patients who have sickle-cell disease, the physiological balance between the two main functions of bone tissue (hematopoiesis and osteogenesis) is altered. Hematopoiesis is increased, and abnormalities of the microvascular blood supply in the areas of hematopoiesis may result in osteonecrosis. The case of our patient suggests that the transplantation of hematopoietic stem cells for the purpose of correcting hemolytic anemia also might normalize the bone marrow in patients who have sickle-cell disease. The risk of additional epiphyseal necrosis in such patients then is decreased because the cells do not sickle. This is important because avascular necrosis is a frequent, chronic complication of sickle-cell disease^12,20 that can be debilitating when there is involvement of the femoral head¹³. The treatment of avascular necrosis in patients who have sickle-cell disease is difficult in view of the high rate of complications associated with joint replacement.

Kaplan et al.¹⁸, in 1988, described the case of a patient in whom hematopoietic and osteogenic function normalized after the treatment of infantile malignant osteopetrosis with bone-marrow transplantation. Our study seems to demonstrate that the presence of hematopoietic tissue in the epiphysis of a patient who has sickle-cell disease is reversible after bone-marrow transplantation. This finding is of critical importance in the establishment of a curative role for bone-marrow transplantation in the treatment of sickle-cell disease. Nevertheless, it should be remembered that bone-marrow transplantation rarely is indicated for patients who have this disease and is not currently offered to patients who have only osteonecrosis. As bone-marrow transplantation is associated with the risks of mortality and graft-versus-host disease, and as there is uncertainty regarding the long-term outcome of the procedure, we believe that this treatment should be offered only to children who have severe symptomatic sickle-cell anemia and who have an HLA-compatible sibling. This may represent as few as 1 to 2 per cent of the total population of children who have sickle-cell anemia¹⁹. Furthermore, four years represents a relatively short period of follow-up for such a treatment, and the long-term outcome of this procedure is still uncertain.

References

Introduction | Case Report | Discussion | References

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