JBJS | Load-Displacement Behavior in a Distal Radial Fracture Model. The Effect of Simulated Healing on Motion

The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery, Volume 81, Issue 1

Articles | January 01, 1999

Load-Displacement Behavior in a Distal Radial Fracture Model. The Effect of Simulated Healing on Motion

SCOTT W. WOLFE, M.D.†; MARK D. LORENZE, M.D.†; GREGORY AUSTIN, B.A.†; CARRIE R. SWIGART, M.D.†; MANOHAR M. PANJABI, PH.D.†, NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT

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Investigation performed at the Yale Hand Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven

The Journal of Bone & Joint Surgery. 1999; 81:53-59

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Abstract

External fixation of fractures of the distal end of the radius neutralizes external forces and maintains axial alignment during healing. As far as we know, there have been no biomechanical studies of the effects of early removal of the fixator in a partially healed fracture model. The purpose of the present study was to observe the load-displacement behavior of a distal radial fracture model in which we had simulated partial healing by injection of butyl-rubber caulk and augmented this simulated healing with Kirschner-wire fixation. Sixteen fresh-frozen hand-wrist-forearm specimens from cadavera were mounted in mid-rotation in resin pots, and a load was applied. An osteotomy was used to simulate the fracture. Relative motion at the site of the osteotomy was compared, with use of a three-dimensional Optotrak kinematic device, during physiological loading of six constructs with Kirschner-wire transfixion or outrigger fixation. In the experimental group, partial healing was simulated by injection of butyl-rubber caulk into the site of the osteotomy and testing with simulated muscle-loading was performed through a full range of motion of the wrist. No difference could be detected between the relative motion at the osteotomy sites that had been treated with standard fully augmented external fixation and that in the experimental group (p > 0.05). T test analysis revealed that motion was equivalent regardless of whether Kirschner-wire transfixion or outrigger fixation had been used (p = 0.62) and that all of the augmented constructs had significantly less relative motion than all of the nonaugmented constructs (p < 0.001).CLINICAL RELEVANCE: In clinical practice, early removal of a standard external fixator is desirable to prevent stiffness, provided that the removal does not decrease the stability of the fracture. We found that the combination of partial simulated healing and augmentation with Krischner wires in vitro provided stability that was comparable with that provided by full fixation without simulated healing in an acute-fracture model. These findings support the concept of modular disassembly of the external fixator to allow an early range of motion of the wrist.

Figures in this Article

Introduction

Introduction | Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | References

External fixation of an unstable fracture of the distal end of the radius provides a simple way to maintain axial alignment through ligamentotaxis and to neutralize external forces during healing. However, external fixation is associated with complications, including infection, loosening of the pins, loss of reduction, and permanent stiffness^15,16,21,24. There have been many attempts to change the design of external fixators of the distal end of the radius in order to facilitate their use and to reduce the rate of complications^7,30. Early motion of the wrist has been advocated to decrease the stiffness associated with prolonged immobilization^7,21. Dynamic external fixators have been used in clinical trials in an attempt to decrease stiffness, but pin-track infections and settling of the fracture have still occurred^7,30.

Kirschner wires have been used to augment fixation in order to help to prevent settling of the fracture and loss of reduction^23,28. With use of a model of an unstable distal radial fracture, we demonstrated that supplemental Kirschner-wire transfixion or outrigger⁴ fixation significantly increases the biomechanical stability of external fixation (p < 0.05)³³. If supplementary fixation of the fracture provides sufficient stability, early removal of all or part of the external fixator may be possible in order to allow motion of the wrist during healing. To the best of our knowledge, no biomechanical studies have been performed to investigate early removal of an external fixator in a distal radial fracture model with simulated partial healing.

The purpose of the present study was to observe the load-displacement behavior of an in vitro partially healed distal radial fracture model with supplemental Kirschner-wire transfixion or outrigger fixation. We hypothesized that a simulated partially healed fracture supplemented with Kirschner-wire fixation would be sufficiently stable to allow early loading and motion of the wrist.

*Although none of the authors has received or will receive benefits for personal or professional use from a commercial party related directly or indirectly to the subject of this article, benefits have been or will be received, but are directed solely to a research fund, foundation, educational institution, or other nonprofit organization with which one or more of the authors is associated. Funds were received in total or partial support of the research or clinical study presented in this article. The funding source was Orthologic, Incorporated.

†Yale Hand Biomechanics Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics and Rehabilitation, Yale University School of Medicine, P.O. Box 208071, New Haven, Connecticut 06520-8071. E-mail address for Dr. Wolfe: scott.wolfe@yale.edu.

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FIG1:: Fig. 1 Illustrations of the Group-I constructs (controls). Note that the distal pin cluster of the external fixator was removed to allow motion of the wrist. Alternate flexion and extension loads were applied through a full range of motion of the wrist. Left: Fixation with a styloid transfixion wire (ST) and a dorsal transfixion wire (DT) only. Middle: Fixation with a styloid outrigger wire (SO) and a dorsal outrigger wire (DO). Right: Stabilization of the site of the osteotomy with butyl-rubber caulk alone. PA = posteroanterior.

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FIG2:: Fig. 2 Illustrations of four representative Group-II constructs (standard augmented external fixation). Six constructs were tested, in randomized order, before and after the osteotomy: a styloid transfixion wire (ST) (top left), a dorsal transfixion wire (DT) (top right), styloid and dorsal transfixion wires (not shown), a styloid outrigger wire (SO) (bottom left), a dorsal outrigger wire (DO) (bottom right), and styloid and dorsal outrigger wires (not shown). PA = posteroanterior, and LAT = lateral.

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FIG3:: Fig. 3 Illustration of the Group-III construct (experimental group). Partial healing was simulated by injection of caulk into the site of the osteotomy, and the same six Kirschner-wire constructs that were used in Group II were tested during full motion of the wrist as allowed by detachment of the distal end of the fixator.

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TABLE I RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL FRACTURE FRAGMENTS IN THE THREE GROUPS

*The values are given as the mean and the standard deviation.

Fixation	Range of Motion* (degrees)
Sagittal	Coronal
Group I
IA (transfixion wires only) (n = 4)	15.1 ± 2.7	10.9 ± 1.3
IB (outrigger wires only) (n = 4)	14.7 ± 2.3	9.6 ± 1.4
IC (caulk only) (n = 4)	28.4 ± 4.0	15.5 ± 1.8
Overall mean	19.4 ± 7.2	12.0 ± 2.9
Group II (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.5 ± 1.3	1.9 ± 0.1
Styloid transfixion wire	2.7 ± 1.0	1.2 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	2.8 ± 1.0	1.4 ± 0.1
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.2 ± 1.3	1.7 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.5 ± 1.1	1.8 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.3 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.2 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.4
Group III (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.9 ± 0.7	1.8 ± 0.2
Styloid transfixion wire	4.0 ± 0.8	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	3.2 ± 0.7	1.3 ± 0.4
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.7 ± 0.5	2.0 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.9 ± 0.7	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.8 ± 0.6	2.2 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.8 ± 0.7	1.9 ± 0.4

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TABLE I RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL FRACTURE FRAGMENTS IN THE THREE GROUPS

*The values are given as the mean and the standard deviation.

Fixation	Range of Motion* (degrees)
Sagittal	Coronal
Group I
IA (transfixion wires only) (n = 4)	15.1 ± 2.7	10.9 ± 1.3
IB (outrigger wires only) (n = 4)	14.7 ± 2.3	9.6 ± 1.4
IC (caulk only) (n = 4)	28.4 ± 4.0	15.5 ± 1.8
Overall mean	19.4 ± 7.2	12.0 ± 2.9
Group II (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.5 ± 1.3	1.9 ± 0.1
Styloid transfixion wire	2.7 ± 1.0	1.2 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	2.8 ± 1.0	1.4 ± 0.1
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.2 ± 1.3	1.7 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.5 ± 1.1	1.8 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.3 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.2 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.4
Group III (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.9 ± 0.7	1.8 ± 0.2
Styloid transfixion wire	4.0 ± 0.8	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	3.2 ± 0.7	1.3 ± 0.4
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.7 ± 0.5	2.0 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.9 ± 0.7	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.8 ± 0.6	2.2 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.8 ± 0.7	1.9 ± 0.4

Materials and methods

Introduction | Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | References

Preparation of the Specimens

Sixteen fresh-frozen cadaveric hand-wrist-forearm specimens were mounted in mid-rotation in Bondo resin pots (Dynatron/Bondo, Atlanta, Georgia). Except for the tendons of the five wrist motors (the extensor carpi radialis longus, extensor carpi radialis brevis, extensor carpi ulnaris, flexor carpi ulnaris, and flexor carpi radialis), the pronator quadratus, the wrist capsule, the ligaments of the wrist, the dorsal retinaculum, and the interosseous membrane, which were left intact, all skin and soft tissue were dissected off of the specimens. The tendons of the five wrist motors were isolated and were secured with Bunnell sutures, with use of number-1 braided polyester, for the application of load. A single syndesmotic screw was inserted eleven centimeters proximal to the tip of the ulnar styloid process with the forearm in neutral rotation. An external fixator (Orthoframe Mayo fixator; Orthologic, Phoenix, Arizona) was applied, with a standard mid-axial method, to the radial diaphysis and the index metacarpal. Each pin cluster consisted of two 2.0-millimeter threaded pins. An unstable metaphyseal fracture was simulated by removal of a one-centimeter-wide dorsal wedge of corticocancellous bone centered two centimeters from the articular margin. The volar aspect of the osteotomy site was divided, but cortical contact remained.

The partially healed model was simulated by injection of a butyl-rubber caulking compound (Red Devil Caulk; Red Devil, Union, New Jersey) into the site of the osteotomy. After the external fixator had been applied and the osteotomy site had been prepared, the ends of the bone were dried with ethanol. Caulk was injected into the osteotomy site with a caulk gun and was pressurized to integrate the material into the cancellous surface. The caulk was allowed to dry for forty-eight hours before testing. The indentation stiffness of the butyl-rubber compound was determined with a method described by Markel et al. for the testing of callus and tissue from the gap of a canine tibial fracture model²². Fully cured butyl-rubber compound was formed into 2.0-millimeter-thick sections and was indented with a 1.6-millimeter-diameter ball at a rate of 2.75 millimeters per minute in a specially designed uniaxial testing machine to a maximum depth of 0.37 millimeter. The stepper-motor-controlled machine has a resolution of 0.01 millimeter.

Each potted specimen was mounted vertically in a loading jig to facilitate tendon-loading. Three monitoring flags were used for motion analysis. Each flag contained three nonlinear infrared emitting diodes designed for the Optotrak motion analysis system (Northern Digital, Waterloo, Canada). One flag was mounted 0.5 centimeter proximal to the articular margin of the distal end of the radius (within the osteotomy fragment). A second flag was mounted in the proximal end of the radial diaphysis. A third flag was mounted in the metacarpal of the long finger. Anteroposterior radiographs were made of each specimen, and the proximal and distal edges of the osteotomy site were digitized for later motion analysis.

Group I (Controls)

Three control groups were tested to determine the effect of fixation with Kirschner wires alone, outrigger fixation alone, and simulated partial healing alone on relative motion between the bone fragments during active motion of the wrist. The distal pin cluster of the external fixator was removed, and the three different fixation constructs were tested (Fig. 1).

The first construct (Group IA) consisted of two 0.062-inch (0.16-centimeter) diameter Kirschner wires (transfixion wires) inserted into the distal fragment and across the site of the osteotomy. The wires crossed the osteotomy site at an angle of approximately 45 degrees in order to engage the far cortex of the proximal fragment. One of the wires entered the tip of the radial styloid process and crossed the site in the coronal plane (the styloid transfixion wire), and the other entered the dorsal lip of the radius and crossed the site in the sagittal plane (the dorsal transfixion wire). Four specimens were tested in this manner.

The second construct (Group IB) consisted of two 0.062-inch (0.16-centimeter) diameter Kirschner wires attached through an outrigger device to the remaining proximal arm of the fixator. These wires were placed across both cortices of the distal fragment but did not cross the site of the osteotomy and thus were not transfixion Kirschner wires. One wire entered the distal fragment from the radial styloid process (the styloid outrigger wire), and the other entered the fragment from a straight dorsal direction (the dorsal outrigger wire). The same four specimens that were tested in Group IA were tested in Group IB; the sequence of testing of the transfixion and outrigger wires was alternated so as not to introduce artifact related to repeated testing.

The third construct (Group IC) consisted of simulated partial healing with caulk and without augmentation with Kirschner wires. Four specimens were tested in this manner.

Group II (Standard Augmented External Fixation)

In Group II, eight specimens were tested, before and after the osteotomy, with standard external fixation and six Kirschner-wire constructs.

Each specimen was tested before the osteotomy was performed but after the external fixator was applied, to control for any imprecision of the testing apparatus and the three-dimensional kinematic measurements. After the osteotomy, six Kirschner-wire constructs were tested: a single styloid transfixion wire, a single dorsal transfixion wire, styloid and dorsal transfixion wires, a single styloid outrigger wire, a single dorsal outrigger wire, and styloid and dorsal outrigger wires (Fig. 2). The order of testing of the configurations was randomized for each specimen to control for any variability due to insertion and removal of the wires. No caulk was used in this group.

Group III (Experimental Group)

The same eight specimens that were tested in Group II were tested in Group III. However, in Group III, caulk was injected into the osteotomy site and was allowed to cure for forty-eight hours before testing (Fig. 3). The six Kirschner-wire constructs that were tested in Group II were tested after removal of the distal pin cluster to allow an unrestricted range of motion of the wrist. The constructs were tested in randomized order to minimize the effect of removal and replacement of the wires.

Testing of the Specimens

The specimen and the loading jig were fixed to a pneumatic loading device. Preload was applied to the wrist motors to approximate physiological muscle tone^1,19,20,32. A load of 9.8 newtons was applied to the flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris, and extensor carpi ulnaris tendons, and 9.8 newtons was distributed equally between the extensor carpi radialis brevis and longus tendons, for a total of 39.2 newtons across the wrist. Incremental load increases of 19.6 newtons were applied in either extension or flexion to a maximum of 98.0 newtons across the wrist. In Groups I and III, in which the wrist was free to move, the flexion or extension force caused the hand to flex or extend within the constraints of the wrist capsule and ligaments. Two loading cycles were performed before actual testing to control for viscoelastic deformation of the ligaments and soft tissues of the wrist² Motion data were recorded with use of the flags and infrared markers during a third loading cycle for each experimental configuration.

The specimens were kept moist with isotonic saline solution during testing. In addition, the wrists were loosely wrapped with saline solution-soaked gauze during storage to minimize evaporative losses.

Analysis of the Data

The rotational and translational motions of the distal fragment relative to the proximal fragment were calculated by translating the global coordinates of the Optotrak system into a local reference system with use of the digitized radiographs of each specimen. The local coordinate system referenced the distal edge of the osteotomy site with respect to the proximal edge. The range of motion of the distal fragment was measured in all three planes. The results were compared among the three groups with use of a derived analysis-of-variance model with an F of 218.1. In addition, the stability of individual Kirschner-wire constructs was compared within each group with a one-tailed paired Student t test. A p value of 0.05 or less was considered significant. All calculations were performed with Excel software (Microsoft, Redmond, Washington).

Results

Introduction | Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | References

In Group I (controls), the mean range of motion (and standard deviation) of the distal fragment was 19.4 ± 7.2 degrees in the sagittal plane (flexion-extension) and 12.0 ± 2.9 degrees in the coronal plane (radioulnar deviation), which represents a highly unstable fracture. The transfixion Kirschner wires (Group IA) allowed a mean range of motion of 15.1 ± 2.7 degrees in the sagittal plane and 10.9 ± 1.3 degrees in the coronal plane. The Kirschner wires attached to an outrigger (Group IB) allowed a mean range of range of motion of 14.7 ± 2.3 degrees in the sagittal plane and 9.6 ± 1.4 degrees in the coronal plane. Finally, the use of caulk to simulate a partially healed fracture (Group IC) allowed a mean range of motion of 28.4 ± 4.0 degrees in the sagittal plane and 15.5 ± 1.8 degrees in the coronal plane (Table I). The indentation stiffness of the butyl-rubber caulking material was 0.6 ± 0.1 newton per millimeter.

In Group II (standard augmented external fixation), there was minimum motion of the distal fragment in the sagittal plane (mean, 0.04 degree) or the coronal plane (mean, 0.02 degree) before the osteotomy. After the osteotomy and application of the Kirschner-wire constructs, the mean overall range of motion of the distal fragment was 3.2 ± 1.2 degrees in the sagittal plane and 1.6 ± 0.4 degrees in the coronal plane (Table I). The post hoc Scheffé test revealed that the mean range of motion in the sagittal and coronal planes in Group II was significantly different (p < 0.05) than that for all constructs in Group I. Of note, no significant differences were detected, with the numbers available, between individual Kirschner-wire constructs in Group II (p > 0.05).

In Group III (the experimental group), the mean range of motion of the distal fragment was 3.8 ± 0.7 degrees in the sagittal plane and 1.9 ± 0.4 degrees in the coronal plane. The post hoc Scheffé test revealed that the mean range of motion in the sagittal and coronal planes in Group III was significantly less than that for all constructs in Group I (p < 0.05). However, the mean range of motion in the sagittal and coronal planes in Group III was not found to be significantly different than that in Group II (p > 0.05). In addition, no significant differences with regard to motion were detected between any of the Kirschner-wire constructs in Group III.

With use of the t test, we could not detect an increase in the stability provided by outrigger fixation compared with that provided by Kirschner-wire transfixion (p = 0.62). We also found that all of the augmented constructs were significantly more stable than all of the constructs in Group I (p < 0.001).

Discussion

Introduction | Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | References

Although Abraham Colles was evidently satisfied with the results of his treatment of distal radial fractures in 1814⁹, more recent authors have drawn attention to the high prevalence of unsatisfactory results. In 1952, DePalma hypothesized that a residual dorsal tilt of the distal end of the radius of more than 5 degrees led to a poor result¹³. Gartland and Werley found that immobilization of a distal radial fracture in a cast resulted in a 60 percent loss of reduction and an unsatisfactory result with regard to pain and loss of function in nineteen (32 per cent) of sixty patients¹⁷. Cole and Obletz documented radial shortening of three millimeters or more in twenty-two (67 percent) of the thirty-three patients and radial shortening of six millimeters or more in eleven patients (33 percent) after fixation with pins and plaster⁸. Chapman et al. reported radial shortening of five millimeters or more in twenty (25 percent) of eighty patients who had been managed with the same technique; a complication led to a reoperation thirteen patients (16 percent)⁶. Short et al. found that loss of volar tilt after a distal radial fracture led to progressive load on the ulnocarpal and radioscaphoid articulations, which caused pain and early degenerative disease²⁹. Taleisnik and Watson reported an association between malunion of the distal end of the radius and dynamic midcarpal instability³¹.

Unsatisfied with the available methods of treatment, Cooney et al., in 1979, critically reviewed external fixation for the treatment of distal radial fractures and reported a good result for fifty-one (85 percent) of sixty patients, with decreased radial shortening and improved volar tilt¹¹. Since then, external fixation has become a popular and reliable method for the treatment of these frequently seen fractures. A common algorithm for unstable distal radial fractures is external fixation, supplemental fixation with Kirschner wires, and, frequently, the use of a bone graft or bone substitute^2,3,14,18,26. Although early motion is thought to be important after any articular fracture, concern over loss of stability of the fracture has made early motion difficult to achieve after external fixation of the distal end of the radius.

In clinical practice, early removal of a standard external fixator is desirable, in order to prevent stiffness and to lessen the chance of a deep pin-track infection, provided that the removal does not decrease the stability of the fracture. Increased distraction across the wrist and an increased duration of external fixation are associated with adverse effects. With use of the carpal height index to quantify distraction, Kaempffe et al. discovered that an increase in the duration and amount of distraction of distal radial fractures treated with external fixation adversely affected the final range of motion of the wrist, function, grip strength, and level of pain²¹. The scores for motion were affected most strongly.

In response to this problem, some authors have recommended the use of a dynamic external fixator that allows a range of motion of the wrist during healing⁷. However, Sommerkamp et al., in a prospective, randomized study, showed that the use of an articulated external fixator yielded inferior subjective and objective outcomes compared with those obtained with a standard external fixator³⁰. A fundamental concept of external fixation of the distal end of the radius is that ligamentotaxis helps to stabilize the fracture; the dynamic external fixator does not do this consistently.

In the present study, we created an in vitro osteotomy model to test the stability of a partially healed distal radial fracture after removal of the distal pin cluster of a standard external fixator. We demonstrated that, in such a model, the addition of Kirschner wires allowed the distal pin cluster of the external fixator to be removed. This was possible because the Kirschner wires provided stability that was comparable with that in the model of an acute fracture with standard augmented external fixation. We also demonstrated that a variety of Kirschner-wire constructs could be used to achieve similar stability.

There are several limitations to the present study. The results in our extra-articular fracture model cannot be applied to more comminuted intra-articular fractures. In addition, although the loads across the wrist during activities of daily living have been estimated, the values have been based on theoretical calculations^1,5,10. We used a maximum load of approximately 100 newtons on the basis of both these theoretical calculations and the results of similar biomechanical investigations of instability of the wrist, disorders of the distal radioulnar joint, and fractures of the wrist^11,25,27,32. Finally, we are not sure if caulk is the most appropriate material with which to simulate partial healing. The indentation stiffness of the caulking material was 0.55 newton per millimeter, which is approximately 5 percent of the stiffness that Markel et al. reported in their analysis of two-week-old tissue from the tibial fracture gap in a canine model²². Thus, although caulk is considerably less stiff than the gap tissue in canines, we believed that the material would acceptably simulate partial healing because it would not overestimate the stiffness of tissue in a fracture gap. On the basis of our data, we were unable to define an exact state of fracture-healing at which it is safe to dismantle the external fixator, but we were able to conclude that, at some point before complete healing occurs, an augmented partially healed fracture is strong enough to tolerate moderate loads without a change in the alignment of the fracture and it is as stable as an acute fracture treated with augmented external fixation.

In conclusion, our findings support the concept of modular disassembly of an external fixator to allow an early range of motion of a wrist with a partially healed distal radial fracture treated with supplemental Kirschner-wire fixation. In our in vitro fracture model, we found that a combination of simulated partial healing and supplemental fixation with Kirschner wires provided stability that was comparable with that of an acute simulated fracture treated with standard augmented external fixation.

References

Introduction | Materials and methods | Results | Discussion | References

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TABLE I RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL FRACTURE FRAGMENTS IN THE THREE GROUPS

*The values are given as the mean and the standard deviation.

Fixation	Range of Motion* (degrees)
Sagittal	Coronal
Group I
IA (transfixion wires only) (n = 4)	15.1 ± 2.7	10.9 ± 1.3
IB (outrigger wires only) (n = 4)	14.7 ± 2.3	9.6 ± 1.4
IC (caulk only) (n = 4)	28.4 ± 4.0	15.5 ± 1.8
Overall mean	19.4 ± 7.2	12.0 ± 2.9
Group II (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.5 ± 1.3	1.9 ± 0.1
Styloid transfixion wire	2.7 ± 1.0	1.2 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	2.8 ± 1.0	1.4 ± 0.1
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.2 ± 1.3	1.7 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.5 ± 1.1	1.8 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.3 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.2 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.4
Group III (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.9 ± 0.7	1.8 ± 0.2
Styloid transfixion wire	4.0 ± 0.8	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	3.2 ± 0.7	1.3 ± 0.4
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.7 ± 0.5	2.0 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.9 ± 0.7	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.8 ± 0.6	2.2 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.8 ± 0.7	1.9 ± 0.4

Add to My JBJS

TABLE I RELATIVE MOTION BETWEEN THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL FRACTURE FRAGMENTS IN THE THREE GROUPS

*The values are given as the mean and the standard deviation.

Fixation	Range of Motion* (degrees)
Sagittal	Coronal
Group I
IA (transfixion wires only) (n = 4)	15.1 ± 2.7	10.9 ± 1.3
IB (outrigger wires only) (n = 4)	14.7 ± 2.3	9.6 ± 1.4
IC (caulk only) (n = 4)	28.4 ± 4.0	15.5 ± 1.8
Overall mean	19.4 ± 7.2	12.0 ± 2.9
Group II (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.5 ± 1.3	1.9 ± 0.1
Styloid transfixion wire	2.7 ± 1.0	1.2 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	2.8 ± 1.0	1.4 ± 0.1
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.2 ± 1.3	1.7 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.5 ± 1.1	1.8 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.3 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.2 ± 1.2	1.6 ± 0.4
Group III (n = 8)
Dorsal transfixion wire	3.9 ± 0.7	1.8 ± 0.2
Styloid transfixion wire	4.0 ± 0.8	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid transfixion wires	3.2 ± 0.7	1.3 ± 0.4
Dorsal outrigger wire	3.7 ± 0.5	2.0 ± 0.3
Styloid outrigger wire	3.9 ± 0.7	2.0 ± 0.2
Dorsal and styloid outrigger wires	3.8 ± 0.6	2.2 ± 0.3
Overall mean	3.8 ± 0.7	1.9 ± 0.4